Tuesday, November 29, 2011

CV Krishna P. Kaphle


CURRICULUM VITAE


PROFILE 
I am a committed professional Senior Geologist, dedicated to the field of geological mapping, mineral exploration, hydrocarbon exploration, hazard mapping, engineering and environmental geological mapping, disaster risk management and environment protection in urban areas. I have 36 years of working experience a significant portion of which was in mineral exploration mainly base metals, gold, uranium, tin, tungsten, fuel minerals, phosphorite and limestone. I grew professionally with the global and national level evolution of concepts, approaches and methods, which helped me to influence the government, private organization NGOs, INGOs and funding agencies. I can mobilize the knowledge I obtained during my university education and training from Australia, Germany, Norway, USA and Nepal, and the experiences gained during my professional works and research in minerals and fossil fuel resources in Nepal. I had also worked as a counterpart together with experts from Germany, France, Japan and USA. In addition to professional work I have also worked as a Chief of Planning, Evaluation and Information Section for 5 years and then as a Chief of Geological Survey and Research Sub-Division and later Chief, Technical and Administration Services Division for 2 years in Department of Mines and Geology (DMG) during which I had represented DMG in various meetings in the Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry of Science & Technology, National Planning Commission etc.
I was one of the members of evaluation committee to evaluate the proposals received from the CAIRN Energy PLC (2004) to obtain the petroleum exploration license for prospecting block number 1, 2, 4, 6, and 7 from the Government of Nepal. I had regularly attended the JRC meetings and actively took parts in the discussions. I was also appointed by the Director General of, DMG as a member of evaluation committee to check the performance of the Texana Resources Company which is engaged in petroleum exploration in block 3 & 5, Nepal since 14 Dec 1998.
Based on my research works, working experience and knowledge gained I have published more than 25 scientific papers in the national and international Journals/ Bulletin and Proceedings of the Conference/ Symposium/ Geological Congress and prepared over 70 professional papers and reports in the various field of Geoscience, Engineering and environment geology, Disaster management, Environment protection and Global warming/ Climate change.
As a Former President of Nepal Geological Society I successfully lead the society (1994 -1996) and initiated many new activities; as a Convener I had successfully organized 1st and 6th Nepal Geological Congress and also took parts in more than 75 Seminars/ Symposium/ Congress/ Workshop/ Meetings in different countries of Asia, Europe, America and Australia in the past and presented more than 25 research papers and took part in the discussions and preparation of documents.
My experience of successfully working with the government organizations, Tribhuvan University, UNDP, NGOs, INGOs and other stakeholders will certainly allow/ help me to formulate the programs, implement them and perform my duty wit



(1) PERSONAL DATA                                                                                                
Name:                                    Krishna Prasad Kaphle
Date of Birth:                      17 September 1949                                            Nationality:                         Nepalese
Sex:                                        Male                                                                      Marital Status:                    Married
Qualification:                     Master of Science in Geology (M.Sc. Geology after B.Sc. Hons. in Geology)
Professional Position:       Former Superintending Geologist (Retired on 17 Sept 2007) in DMG; Presently Technical Adviser (part time) in N & C Minerals Pvt. Ltd. Bauddha, Kathmandu.
Professional Experience: 36 years
Contact Address:                Majurmarg - 60, Panipokhari, Marajgunj, Kathmandu Metropolitan City, Ward -3
GPO Box 11279, Kathmandu, Nepal,
E-mail: kpkaphle@gmail.com; Tel: 977-1-4428577 ®, Mobile: 977-9841203555
(2) EDUCATION
* Master of Science (M. Sc.) in Geology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan 1975,
 I - Division, (Second position in merit).
*Bachelor of Science with Honors (B. Sc. Hons. in Geology), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan  1973
         I - Division, (Second position in merit).

(3) TRAINNING
  • On the Job Training on:
* International Energy Laws, Contracts and Negotiations: Upstream Issues and Agreements, Dec 5 - 9, 2005 in           Huston, Texas, USA. Organized by Rocky Mountain Mineral Law Foundation, USA.
* Petroleum Policy and Management, organized by PETRAD, Stavanger, Norway. 26 August to 17 October 2002
 *Petroleum Economics and Fiscal Terms, organized by PETRAD in cooperation with DMG/PEPP on 18 – 20 February 202 in Kathmandu., Nepal
 *Negotiations of Petroleum Contracts, organized by PETRAD in cooperation with DMG/PEPP on 30 Nov to 2nd December 1999 in Kathmandu, Nepal.
 *Project Preparation & Appraisal, Nepal Administrative   Staff College, Nepal. 14 Aug.- 26 Sept. 1997, I - Division
 *GIS for the Management of Natural Resources and the Environment, ICIMOD, Nepal. 4 weeks in 1992.
 *Advance Course on Prospection of Metallic Raw Materials, Federal Republic of Germany. 13 months (Dec.1985     to Dec. 1986) and research (1 Jan. to 15 Feb. 1987).
 *Mineral Exploration, ADAB/ Australia, 3 months in 1982.
 *General Administration” HMG/ Ministry of General Administration, Nepal. 2 months in 1982. I – Division.
 *Introductory course in" Introduction of Organic Geochemical Data" Petro Canada International Management Services, Kathmandu, Nepal, 26 - 29 July1992.

 *Gender Responsive Planning in the World of Work. Organized by ILO, 15-18 April 2003, Nepal.

 * Mid Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF), Organized by NPC & MOF, 23 - 28 March 2003, Kathmandu, Nepal.  

* Syber Security: e-payment and e-signeture infrastructure that meet user needs Dec. 2004
  • Computer Skill:  MS Word/ Word Processing, Excel, Power Point

(4) PROFESSIONAL SKILLS/ EXPERTISE
* Overall management of technical organizations/ Geological survey, General administration, Project planning, Budgeting, Preparation of monthly, 4 monthly and annual progress reports etc.
 *Long experience on mineral exploration, evaluation of the mineral deposits especially on gold, lead, zinc, copper (base metals), iron, uranium, tin, tungsten, phosphorite, cement grade limestone and fuel minerals.
   *Prepared Engineering and Environmental Geological Maps, Reports, Hazard assessment and assessment of infrastructure development plans/ New settlement in Urban areas (Municipalities) worked with German Government Financed Project (Mineral exploration in 1991- 1993 and Environment Geology in 1997 - 2000). Field study of Sanitary landfill site selection in municipalities (Kathmandu, Pokhara, Butwal, Tansen, Bharatpur, and Dhangarhi municipalities).
 *Organized International and National Seminar/ Symposium/ Geological Congress/ Workshops on Mineral exploration, Fuel minerals, Engineering and Environment geology and Hazard assessment, Disaster management, and to promote Engineering and Environment Geological maps, Hazard maps, geological maps, Earthquake hazard maps to the potential users, and also organized earthquake awareness programs in Municipalities.
 * Engineering and Environmental geological studies of environment friendly road, and small irrigation projects,       "Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of some roads/ Highways and Thoshe Iron Deposit/ mine.
 *Preparation of Comprehensive Database on Natural Disaster Management Capabilities in Nepal (Submitted to UNDP/ DMS Nepal) and many other professional reports, and publication of research papers on Hazard assessment (landslide, earthquakes, sinkholes, natural radiation, flood prone areas etc.), selection of landfill sites, engineering and environmental geology, mineral exploration, geological mapping etc.
 * Preparation of Emergency Country Profile of Nepal for WHO on behalf of NSET-Nepal in 2000 (Submitted to WHO).
 *Resource person/ Special lectures in Disaster management, Geohazard and Environmental degradation in major cities; Global warming/ Climate change in Nepal Himalaya; Engineering and Environment geological mapping and their use in infrastructure development planning (DWIDP); Geology and Mineral resources of Nepal, investment opportunities in mining and mineral based industries in Nepal; External Examiner (TU); Part time Technical Advisor in N & C Minerals P. Ltd.; and consultant in N-SET Nepal, TAEC Consult, Silt Consult, and BDA Nepal (in the past); hydrolab.


(5) LANGUAGE:  
        - Mother tongue: Nepali
        - Excellent in reading, understanding, writing, and speaking in English and Nepali  
        - Good in reading and understanding German and Hindi and only understanding Urdu.
       
(6) AWARDS/ MEDALS:
- Gorkha Daxin Bahu -IV (Medal), 1999, Decorated by HM The King Birendra B. B. Shah.
- Natural Disaster Relief Medal, awarded by the Ministry of Home Affairs/ HMG Nepal, 1995.
-Janapad Sewa Padak/ HMG Nepal and Shubha Rajya Vishek Padak/ HMG Nepal
       - Letters of Appreciation from Nepal Geological Society and Saubhagya Ma. Bi. Chidipani, Palpa.
       - Silver medal in M.Sc. Geology (Second Position in merit) and in B.Sc. Hons. (Second Position in merit). 

(7) MEMBER/ ADVISOR/ EDITOR/ CONVENER
       *Founder Member and Life Member, Nepal Geological Society (NGS) and Nuclear Society of Nepal (NUSON).
  and Life Member of Former Civil Servant Service Council – Nepal; Palpali Snagam; and Kaphle Samaj.
* President, Nepal Geological Society (Sept. 1994 to August 1996); Vice- President, Nepal Geological Society (Sept                         1992 to Aug 1994); Treasurer, Nepal Geological Society, (1989 - 1990).
 * Member, Association of Geoscientist for International Development (AGID); International Association of     Engineering      Geology and Environment (IAEG); Carl Duisburg Society Nepal (CDS-Nepal); Member Everest - K2 Society, Nepal.
 *Advisor, Nepal Geological Society (1997 to Aug 2011 and Nuclear Society of Nepal (2005-2011).
* Editor, Journal of Nepal Geological Society (Sept 1996 – Sept 2004).
* Chief Editor, DMG Newsletter Vol.4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 Published by Department of Mines and Geology, Nepal (from     2001 - 2007); NUSON Newsletter Vol. 1, 2 and 3 (2005 and 2007) published by Nuclear Society of Nepal.
* Managing Editor, Annual Report volume 1, 2, 3, and 4, DMG, Published by Department of Mines and Geology, Nepal (from 2003 - 2007).
* Convener, 6th Nepal Geological Congress organized by Nepal Geological Society on 15 - 17 November 2010, Kathmandu, Nepal; First Nepal Geological Congress, organized by Nepal Geological Society 15 - 16 August 1995, Kathmandu, Nepal; International Workshop on Seismology, Seismotectonics and Seismic Hazard jointly going to be organized by DMG/ Nepal and DASE/ France on 28 – 29 Nov 2006 in Kathmandu, Nepal and  Workshop on "Role of Geoscience in Mineral Resources Development and Promotion of Mineral Based Industries in Nepal" 15 August 2002 in Kathmandu, Nepal, Organized by Nepal Geological Society in cooperation with DMG.
 * Co-Convener/ Member, Organizing Committee, 9th Himalaya - Karakoram - Tibet workshop, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1-    4 April 1994.
        *Member, Evaluation Committee to evaluate the proposals received from the CAIRN Energy PLC Petroleum Company (2004); Organizing committee, Fifth Asian Regional Conference on Engineering Geology for Major Infrastructure Development and Natural Hazards Mitigation. 28 – 30 Sept 2005, Kathmandu, Nepal Organized By Nepal Geological Society; Fifth Nepal Geological Congress 26 - 27 November 2007; Fourth Nepal Geological Congress, 7 - 9 April 2004; Third Nepal Geological Congress, September 26-28, 2001;  Second Nepal   Geological Congress, Kathmandu, Nepal 11–13 Nov. 1997; Seminar on Hydrology, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1993; Special editorial board, Proceedings of 9th Himalaya – Karakoram – Tibet Work shop, Journal of Nepal Geological Society, Vol. 11, Spec. Issue, 1995; Scientific Sub committee Nepal Geological Society (Sept. 1992 to Aug 1994); International Symposium on Engineering Geology, Hydrogeology and Natural Disasters with Emphasis in Asia. 28- 30 Sept 1999, Kathmandu, Nepal. Organized by NGS sponsored by IAEG; IDNDR council, Nepal Geological Society (Sept.1996 –Aug.1998); Environment Radiation Subcommittee under National Steering Committee on Atomic Energy, formulated by Ministry of Science and Technology (September 2004); IDNDR Council of  Nepal Geological Society (Sept.1996 – Aug.1998);
        * Coordinator, Earthquake Awareness Program, organized by Department of Mines and Geology in Biratnagar, Pokhara and  Surkhet, Municipalities (2006 -2007), organized talk programs, workshops and seminars on disaster managements to celebrate the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) Day in cooperation with Ministry of Home Affairs/ Nepal, DWIDP, and UNDP/DMS.

(8) WORKING EXPERIENCE    (From Dec. 1975 to Present)
12 Dec.2007 to Present: Technical Advisor;  Provide advisory services especially in gold exploration, Thoshe iron deposit evaluation and base metals exploration) in N and C Minerals Pvt. Ltd, Bauddha, Kathmandu, Nepal.
March 2007 - Sept 2007: Superintending Geologist and Chief, Technical Services and Administration Division, Department of Mines and Geology (DMG), Lainchaur, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Aug. 2005- March 2007: Superintending Geologist and Chief, Geological Survey and Research Sub-Division, DMG, Lainchaur, Kathmandu, Nepal.
2001 – Aug. 2005:  Senior Divisional Geologist and Chief, Planning, Evaluation and Information Section Department of Mines and Geology, also worked as a Contact Person and  Noddle Officer of DMG.
1991 - 2001     : Senior Division al Geologist and Chief, Metallic Mineral Exploration Section, DMG.
   Dec. 1997 –. 2000: Actively involved in Environmental Geology Project. DMG / BGR (German) Technical Cooperation Project. Especially in preparation of reports on Engineering and Environmental Geological Maps of Kathmandu and Pokhara Valleys and assessment of infrastructure development plans/ New settlement area in Kathmandu Valley, Pokhara valley and Butwal and Dharan area; Site selection for Landfill Sites in 5 different municipalities; organize workshops to promote Engineering and Environment Geological maps prepared by DMG/ EGP project in Kathmandu, Pokhara, Butwal and Dharan.
1975  – 2000    : Field Incharge, actively involved in mineral exploration activities of DMG especially on gold, base metals, polymetal sulphides, iron, uranium, tin, tungsten, phosphorite, cement grade limestone and fuel minerals in different parts of Nepal.
  1999, and 1991/1992: Short term Consultant Geologist in TEAC Consult for Engineering and Environmental geological study of Okhaldhunga - Salleri - Phaplu environment friendly road, Eastern Nepal and small irrigation projects in Sunsari, Morang and Dang districts; in SILT Consultant (P) Ltd. for Engineering geological studies of Chhinchu - Jajarkot road alignment; Engineering Geological studies of Kulekhani Hydroelectric Project area, Kulekhani Phase I and II (1990 and 1998); in Building Design Associate (BDA), Nepal, mainly worked in engineering geological studies of small Hill Irrigation Projects in Farwestern Nepal. Dam site selection, canal alignment, rock types, failure plains, slope stability, soil erosion, landslides along the alignment and advise civil engineer to construct civil structure to protect slides etc (1987 – 1988); in SEPORT Consultant for "Environmental Impact Assessment of a part of  Tribhuvan Rajpath and Butwal -Tansen sectoin of Siddhartha Highway.
1998 - Present: Resource Person/ Part time Lecturer, Central Department of Geology, Tribhuvan University (as a Lecturer, Trainer, External examiner, and Thesis Supervisor etc. 1994-1997); Department of Water Induced Disaster Prevention (2003 to present), Department of Geology TC/TU (1977/1978)  SANN Research Institute affiliated with Colorado University, USA (Aug. 1998 – Dec. 1998), and Hydro lab).                                                                                
Attached Counterpart of Dr. H.C. Einfalt, and Dr. L. Steiner, Experts in Economic Geology & Mineral Exploration from BGR, Germany (Feb 1990 to July 1994); Dr. K. Fesefeldt (Sept –Oct 1988) and Dr. R. Muff, Expert from BGR, Germany, a fact finding mission. April – May 1988: Dr. M. Chaigne, Regional Advisor, for Mineral Exploration, ESCAP/ RMRDC mission to Nepal; Dr. Norman J. Page, Chief of Platinum Group Metal Resource Appraisal Project, USGS. USGS, fact finding mission to Nepal (May 28- June 15, 1984).
                                  
(9) PUBLICATION (GEO-SCIENTIFIC AND PROFESSIONAL PAPERS PUBLISHED)
·         Published more than 25 scientific research papers in the national and international Journals/ Bulletin and Proceedings of the Conference/ Symposium/ Geological Congress and prepared over 75 professional papers/ short articles (some of them published) and reports in the various field of Geoscience, Petroleum and natural gas, Engineering and environment geology, Disaster management, Geohazard and Environment degradation and Global warming/ Climate change etc.

(10) PARTICIPATION IN CONFERENCES AND SEMINAR
·         Participated (in more than 75) and research paper presented in (more than 35) National and International Conference/ Congress/ Seminar/ Symposium/ Workshops organized by different professional and nonprofessional Societies, Geological Survey, Universities, Scientific organizations, UN/ESCAP/, UNDP, GEOSAS and other International and National organizations.

I certify that all the information stated in this CV is true and complete to the best of my knowledge.
                                                                                                                               
                                                                Krishna P. Kaphle
                                                                (Senior Geologist)


Himalayan gemstones and their prospects in Nepal


*Krishna P. Kaphle
Majurmarg-60, Panipokhari, Maharajgunj, Kathmandu, Nepal
(*E-mail:kpkaphle@gmail.com)

ABSTRACT

Nepal lies in the central part of the Great Himalayan Belt. The geological environment both in the Higher Himalayan as well as Lesser Himalayan regions is suitable for gemstones (precious and semiprecious stones) mineralization/ deposits. Gemstones are the important mineral resources that can be mined/ quarried economically in Nepal. So far very few private entrepreneurs are conducting gemstone exploration and also operating very small-scale traditional mines mainly of semiprecious stones like Tourmaline, Aquamarine/ Beryl, Garnet, Kyanite, Quartz crystal, and precious stones like Ruby and Sapphire, etc. by obtaining the prospecting and mining licenses from the Government of Nepal/ Department of Mines and Geology (DMG) since long time. But in many cases due to haphazard mining of gemstones without any technical knowhow has resulted considerable loss of the valuable resources and consequent environmental degradation in the area. Precious stones like Ruby and Sapphire are reported from the strongly tectonized lenses of saccharoidal dolomites within highly metamorphosed rock sequence close to the Main Central Thrust (MCT). Similarly semiprecious stones like Tourmaline, Beryl, Aquamarine, Garnet, and Quartz crystals are known from the complex pegmatites occurring mainly in the high grade metamorphic rocks (crystalline rocks). Deep red coloured Garnets and inky blue Kyanites are quite common in the Higher Himalayan crystalline zones. These gemstones are recorded and locally mined in different parts of Dhadhing, Rasuwa, Nuwakot, Manang, Dailekh, Jajrkot, Bajhang, Sankhuwasabha, Ilam, Panchthar and Taplejung district. Some of the mines are already exhausted, and only few of them are in operation.  

Keywords: Nepal Himalaya, gemstone exploration, prospecting and mining license, precious and                semi precious stones, mines, production
Received:                                                        revision accepted:

 

INTRODUCTION


            Gemstones are the valuable natural resources which are present in different parts of Nepal Himalaya. Once beautiful coloured gemstones are cut and polished into attractive shape and size they get very good price in the international market and have bright future. The commercial value of precious stones varies as precious metals. In many cases the price of the gemstone depends also on the buyer's choice. Because of their high value, small volume and easy to transport they can be mined even in the remote areas without heavy equipments. According to the national policy of the Government of Nepal, Department of Mines and Geology (DMG) is giving priority to explore, evaluate and sustainable development of precious and semiprecious stones (Kaphle, 2003) which are available in the country. Promotion of mechanized gemstone mines for better quality gems and their cutting, polishing facilities in the country and proper marketing of finished gemstones should get high priority. The value will be added tremendously (from 50 to >100 times) once the raw gems are properly cut into attractive shape, size and brightness by proper polishing. Considering the value and importance of gemstones in the country the gem cutting and polishing industries should get special privilege to establish the gem industries. Since infrastructure development works are going on in the remote virgin areas it is envisaged that within next few years time more gemstone deposits will be found and gem industries will be established which can contribute substantially in the economic development of the country. There is no Gemology course in the university level in Nepal. The Government of Nepal and the University Authority should think about its importance and include it in the university course and organize regular training courses on gemology, gem cutting, polishing and marketing etc.


OCCURRENCES AND THEIR QUALITY

 

            Most of the gemstones are known mainly from the Higher Himalayan regions and very few of them from the Lesser Himalayan regions of Nepal. Almost all the known Himalayan precious stones like Ruby and Sapphire occur in strongly tectonized lenses of saccharoidal dolomite within the highly metamorphosed rocks lying immediately below the Main Central Thrust (MCT) or in the MCT zones. Similarly, Garnet prospects occur in strongly tectonized lenses of chlorite-biotite- garnet schist/ garnet mica schist that occur near to the MCT. Inky blue Kyanite is common in the kyanite/ sillimanite bearing schist in the Higher Himalayan Crystalline rocks as well as in few cases locally in kynite schist in the Lesser Himalaya. Whereas Tourmaline, Aquamarine/ Beryl, Quartz crystals, Feldspar, etc. occur in the complex zoned pegmatites, which have either discordant or concordant relation to the high-grade metamorphic country rocks in the vicinity of MCT (Fig.1) and in the crystalline Klippe. Basset (1984) did first geological study of Corundum in Ganesh Himal area. Bank et al. (1988) reported very fine gem quality Ruby in Nepal. Harding and Scarrett (1986) described about the Ruby occurrences in Nepal and Robinson et al. (1992) confirmed Ruby deposits in Chumar. Niedermayer et al. (1993) presented an overview on gems of Nepal and described Corundum deposits. Joshi (1985), Aryal (1988), Tamrakar (1990), Einfalt et al (1995) from DMG also conducted gemstone exploration in different parts of Sankhuwasabha, Taplejung, Jajrkot, Manang, Kathmandu, Dhadhing, Rasuwa and reported gemstone occurrences in their reports/ papers. During their field investigations they have noted that at many localities haphazard and illegal mining of gemstones by the untrained and unqualified local people (sometime using explosives) without any technical knowhow has resulted considerable loss of the valuable gemstones and consequent environmental degradation in the region .


GEMSTONES AND THEIR TYPES

            On the basis of their specific physical characteristics, chemical and polishing properties and market value the gemstones are mainly divided into two types as (a) precious stones e.g. Diamond, Ruby, Sapphire, Topaz etc. and (b) semiprecious stones e.g. Tourmaline, Aquamarine/ Beryl, Zircon, Garnet, Kyanite, Amethyst, Citrine, Smoky quartz (quartz crystals), Spinel, Danburite, Amazonite,  etc. Gemstones which are found in different parts of Nepal are briefly described below.

Fig.1: Gemstone occurrences/ prospects/ deposits and mines in Nepal (Kaphle, 2007)

Precious stones
            Among the precious stones only Ruby, Sapphire (Corundum), and Topaz are recorded in some specific locations in Nepal Himalaya. Diamond has not been yet recorded in Nepalese territory.

Rubies and Sapphire (Corundum)
            Gem quality but generally small crystals of light red to red Ruby (Figs. 2, 2a, and 2b) and light to dark blue coloured Sapphire are known from Chumar and Ruyil villages in northern remote parts of Dhading district (UN/ESCAP, with DMG, 1993) and few other localities in Shelghar, Shonglahas, Pola and Sublay in Rasuwa district. They occur in highly tectonized intensely folded en-echelon lenses of saccharoidal dolomite within the high-grade metamorphic rocks close to MCT (Smith et al. 1997, Basset 1987). Corundum (raw ruby) is also reported from Ilam (Tamrakar, 1990) and Sapphire from Taplejung districts in eastern Nepal. Mining of these precious stones in Dhading is very difficult due to isolated locations in the far remote areas, high altitude, rugged topography, difficult terrain and harsh weather conditions. Because of crystal morphology, distinctive internal features and their colour-zoning, brightness and wide variety of mineral inclusions rubies from this Himalayan region are very famous in the international market. A. M. Basset (1984) did first geological study of corundum in Ganesh Himal area, central Nepal. Later on Himalayan Gems, Nepal acquired the leases to Chumar and Ruyil areas and also did gem mining in 1985 (Basset 1985). Later on it has left mining activities due to difficult terrain and mining conditions. However, rudimentary illegal mining activities of such valuable minerals continued without any mining license and technical knowhow in Shelghar and Shonglahas areas and destroyed the valuable resources. Bassett has also reported two other potential areas for Corundum in Pola and Sublay. Therefore, through assessment and proper mining methods with technical advice is warranted to run the mine. At present no one has obtained the prospecting or mining license of Ruby and Sapphire from DMG.

 
Fig. 2: Ruby from Chumar mine (Dhading) Fig. 2a: Raw Ruby                   2b: Ruby Crystal and cut & polished gem
                                    (Photo source: Smith et al. 1997)

Topaz
            It is not as common as tourmaline, aquamarine and garnet in Nepal. Very few transparent straw-yellow and green coloured topaz are reported only from Rasuwa district. Because of its high hardness and bright colour it is suitable to cut into gems. There is no topaz mine in Nepal.

Semiprecious stones

            Semiprecious stones like Tourmaline, Beryl, Aquamarine, Garnet, Spinel, Amazon stone (feldspar), Agate, Jespar, Quartz crystals, (smoky quartz, amethyst, citrine, and rock crystals); inky blue Kyanite, etc. are known from Higher and Lesser Himalayan regions of Nepal. Some of the mines are already closed and few of them are in operation (Tables 1 and 2).

Tourmaline
            Five distinct types of tourmaline occur in Nepal (Basset 1979). The black tourmaline (schorlite) is commonly recorded in pegmatites, granites, and gneisses but most of them are not suitable for gem cutting. Gem quality distinctive multihued Tourmaline (Elbaite) of Hyakule and Phakuwa areas (UN/ESCAP, with DMG, 1993), eastern Nepal pink (Fig. 3), bright green, light orange sometimes with repeated colour banding olive green with amber coloured core in Hyakule, Sankhuwasabha are known since 1934 Bihar - Nepal earthquake, which triggered landslides and exposed the gem bearing pegmatites. Since then small-scale mines of Aquamarine, Beryl, Tourmaline and Garnet are in operation. It is estimated that over 13,000 kg gem tourmaline has been already mined from Hyakule over a period of five decade (Tamrakar 1990). But at present most of them are closed due to difficult mining condition, unavailability of large size gem quality stones and security reason. Pegmatites of Langtang valley (Rasuwa), Naje (Manang), Garkhakot (Jajarkot), Ikabu and Lodantar (Taplejung) and few places in Panchthar are also promising for tourmaline. Some gem quality green coloured tourmaline bearing pegmatites are known from Jajarkot district and two tourmaline mines at Garkhakot area in Jajarkot are in operation (Fig. 4). Raw gemstones from these areas are mined, cut into proper size and polished for gem for sale. Four prospecting licenses and two mining licenses have been issued/ renewed by DMG in FY2066/67. Tourmaline is mined from two mines but production of tourmaline in 2010 (FY 2066/67) is not known.

          
Fig. 3: Raw, cut and polished pink tourmaline from Hyakule.   Fig. 4: Tourmaline crystals in pegmatite, Jajarkot. (DMG, 2000 &2004)

Aquamarine and Beryl
            Aquamarine and Beryl of Ikabu and Lodantar areas in Taplejung district are highly prized. Similarly, hambergite, danburite, and ijolite are the important ones. In this area, beryl and transparent quartz crystal mines are in operation where as the aquamarine and tourmaline mines are still in development stage. Gem quality clear blue aquamarine of Phakuwa village in Sankhuwasabha district (Fig. 5a), aquamarine/ beryl (Fig. 5b) and few green coloured tourmalines from Naje and few other localities in Manang district (Einfalt et al. 1995), western Nepal are famous. Lekhpatan and Tikachaur in Jajarkot; Jagat, Panchmane, Kagtigaon in Kathmandu; Baguwa, Tarkeghyang, Nibuwagaon in Sindhupalchok, Khaptad (Bajhang), and few places of Darchula and Panchthar are the other known places for Beryl/ Aquamarine. The author along with Dr. Einfalt studied some gem bearing pegmatites in Phakuwa, Hyakule (Sankhuwasabha), Naje (Manang) and author in some parts of Taplejung and Jagat in Kathmandu districts. During field investigation they had also recorded that because of haphazard and illegal mining using explosives, without any technical knowhow in mining the local people in Naje has destroyed the whole pegmatite bodies/ prospect, lots of valuable gems (green Tourmaline and marine blue Aquamarine/ beryl) were lost. Now the chance of recovery of large size crystals is very rare.

            Beryl is also a source of beryllium. Beryl/ Aquamarine crystals are cut and used as gem. Attractive colour, brightness, size, shape counts the price of the gemstone. DMG has issued 2 prospecting licenses for Aquamarine. Department of Mines and Geology as well as the local authority should be very careful about the illegal mining activities and destruction of national natural resources and national properties. Present production of Aquamarine and Beryl in 2010 (FY 2066/67) is not known.

                               
Fig. 5a: Aquamarine from Phakuwa, Sankhuwasabha (DMG 2004).   Fig. 5b: Beryl from Taplejung and Manang
Amazon stone/ Amazonite (Feldspar)
            Light green coloured Amazon stone (Fig. 6, coloured microcline feldspar) is recorded in the pegmatites of Hyakule and Phakuwa in Sankhuwasabha, Naje in Manang and some parts of Taplejung. The attractive coloured transparent crystals can be cut into gemstone and other ornaments. There is no mineable deposit of Amazon stone known so far, however, since in many cases it occurs together with tourmaline and quartz crystals in pegmatite it can also be mined at the same time.

 

Epidote

            Elongated light yellowish green or pistacho-green transparent crystals of epidote are recorded in crystalline metamorphic rocks like epidote-garnet-schist, epidote bearing amphibolite, and gneiss in Manang district. There is no epidote mine in Nepal till to day.

 

            Small to fine shining crystals of Zircon, Rutile and Sphene along with garnet, magnetite, + placer gold are recorded in almost all the heavy concentrate samples from the major rivers of Nepal. They are semiprecious stones but because of their small size they are not used as gemstone.

 

Kyanite

            Kyanites are present in high-grade metamorphic schist and gneiss in the Higher Himalayan regions. They are known mainly from Dolakha, Sankhuwasabha, Taplejung, Rasuwa, Dhading, Bajhang, Jajarkot and Achham districts. Elongated tabular inky blue Kyanite crystals are cut for gems (Fig. 7). They are also used to manufacture spark plugs and other highly refractory porcelains in the industries. Kyanite also has many industrial uses. Four small-scale Kyanite mines are in operation in Daha and Suneri areas in Jajarkot and Barah area of Aachham districts. Only elongated tabular inky blue Kyanite crystals of these areas are cut for gem and the rest are used in various industries. Jaipur of India is the main market of Kyanite and other raw gemstones. DMG has issued 15 prospecting licenses and 4 mining licenses of Kyanite. It is mined from four mines in Nepal but present production of Kyanite in FY2066/67 (Gem grade and Industrial grade) is not known.


             
  Fig. 6: Amazone stone (Feldspar), Taplejung             Fig.7: Elongated Kyanite crystal, Daha, Jajarkot.

 

Garnet

            Almost all the prospective garnets are recovered from strongly tectonized lenses and pods of chlorite-biotite- garnet schist within high-grade metamorphic rock sequence mainly in the Higher Himalayan regions in Sankhuwasabha, Taplejung, Ilam, Dhadhing, Rasuwa, Jajarkot, etc. and few other districts(UN/ESCAP, with DMG, 1993). Deep red or red coloured almandine, hessonite and pyrope garnet are mined mainly in Sankhuwasabha and Taplejung districts in eastern Nepal. Due to highly fractured nature only selected pieces are cut for gem and the rest are generally used to make beads (Fig. 8a) and abrasive powder. More than six small-scale garnet mines were in operation since last few decades in Budhekhani, Bhote Khola, Hanglaung, Khining, Sunaula, Swachi Khani in Sankhuwasabha district, Eastern Nepal (Fig. 8b). At that time of the production of raw garnet was up to 37mt till 1985. However, at present none of them are in operation due to lack of technical knowhow, difficult mining condition and security reason. At present only one prospecting license has been issued by DMG.

Fig. 8a: Garnet crystal and beads made up of Garnet.          Fig. 8b: Raw Garnet from Sankhuwasabha
 (Source: DMG mineralogical museum, DMG, 2000)

Quartz crystals (Rock crystal)
            Quartz is a common rock-forming mineral. Quartz crystals are known from the pegmatites located in different parts of Taplejung, Ilam, Sankhuwasabha, Nuwakot, Dhadhing, Rasuwa, Manang, Dailekh, Jajarkot and Darchula districts. Smokey Quartz crystal, rose/ pink quartz (Amethyst), yellow quartz (Citrine) and colourless perfect clear crystal (Rock crystal) are the gem variety that are available in Nepal. They are very good to cut and polish for gems. Colourless quartz crystals (Fig. 9) and dog tooth spar are also used as decorative pieces and export to foreign countries.

Fig. 9: Quartz crystals (DMG 2004) from Taplejung, eastern Nepal (Kaphle2008)

            At present only two small-scale quartz crystals mines are in operation in Khejemi/ Sirku (Taplejung) and Raluka (Nuwakot). High-grade quartz (SiO2 >99%) is used for ferrosilicon production. Industrial application of quartz is in foundry, as flux in still mill, chemicals, refractory, fillers, glass manufacture, sandblast, abrasive etc. Perfect clear quartz crystals without any cracks and inclusions are used in optical apparatus and control the frequency of radio circuits. From DMG record two quartz mines are in operation/ production but present production of Quartz crystals (Gem quality and Industrial quality) in 2010 (FY2066/67) is not known.

Jasper
            It is cryptocrystalline quartz usually with red colour due to hematite inclusions. Jasper is not mined so far in Nepal. However, it has been recorded in the heavy concentrate samples collected from major rivers.

Agate
            It is a variegated variety of chalcedony with nice looking alternating layers of chalcedony and opal. It is recorded at very few places in Sankhuwasabha and Taplejung districts. But they are not yet mined due to their very small occurrences. Present production of agate is not known.

GEMSTONE INDUSTRIES


            In 1985 Dr. A.M. Basset introduced the first modern faceting (cutting and polishing) machine in Nepal and started cutting the local gemstones. In the following years few lapidary works and gem shops were opened in Kathmandu. At present registered gem cutting and polishing industries like (1) Himali Ratna Udyog, Dharan, eastern Nepal (2) Himalayan Gems, Nepal Pvt. Ltd., Kathmandu (3) Birendra Thakali, Pokhara (4) Mohan Shrestha, Kathmandu (5) Udaya Tamrakar, Kathmandu (6) Kohinoor gem industry, Kathmandu etc. are the main ones which are in operation in Nepal (Kaphle, 2003). Now a day a number of gem shops are running their business mainly in Kathmandu, Pokhara and other major cities.

GEMSTONE MINES AND THEIR PRODUCTION

            There is a sharp irregularity in gemstone mining and production in Nepal. The Mining Lease holders did not show regular production in exact amount as they mined every year and suddenly they leave mining activities. Although the Himalayan Gems are very famous and their demand is very high in the international market but the production is very low and could not fulfill the demand. Available data on the raw gemstone production shown by the lease holders to DMG in different year are presented in the Tables 1 and 2 below.

Table 1: Exploration and operating mines of gemstones in Nepal (FY2066/67 BS / 2009/2010)

Mineral Commodity
Location & Number of deposits
Prospects/ Deposit  in exploration stage and Prospecting License
Operating Mines/ and Mining License
Preset status
Exploration/ Mining
Production from the mines
Ruby/ Corundum
Dhadhing and Rasuwa
1 prospecting license issued
No record
NK
NK
Sapphire
Dhadhing and Rasuwa
No license issued
No record
NK
NK
Aquamarine/ Beryl
Sankhuwasabha-1
Taplejung-1
2 Prospecting licenses issued
No record
2 Exploration stage
No production
Tourmaline
Jajarkot-2
Sankhuwasabha-2
10 Prospecting  license issued
- Barabise (Sankhuwasabha) -1
- Garkhakot (Jajarkot)-1,
2 Mines in operation
4 Exploration stage
GQ= NA
IQ=NA
Kyanite
Jajarkot-3
Achham-1
15 prospecting license issued
- Daha (Jajarkot) - 3
- Achham-1
4 Mines in operation
15 Exploration stage
GQ=NA
IQ=NA
Garnet
Sankhuwasabha-1
1 Prospecting license issued
No record
1 Exploration stage
No production
Quartz crystal
Khajenim (Taplejung,)-1 Raluka (Nuwakot)-1
8 Prospecting license issued
-Khajenim (Taplejung) -1
- Raluka (Nuwakot) -1
2 Mines in operation
8 Exploration stage
GQ=NA
IQ=NA
Source: DMG, Planning Section, 2010.    GQ = Gem quality    IQ = Industrial quality                             NA = Not available  NK = Not known

Table 2: Gemstone (Raw) production in Nepal in last 23 years (From 1988 to 2007)
Production year
Ruby & Sapphire
Tourmaline
Aquamarine & Beryl
Garnet
Kyanite
Quartz crystal
Remarks/ Total Production
1988
NA
GQ=1.9kg
IQ=20.2kg
GQ=10kg
IQ=390kg
NA
NA
NA
Total=GQ=11.9kg
           IQ=410.20kg
1989
NA
NA
900kg
NA
NA
NA
Total=900kg
1990
NA
GQ=200kg
IQ=2mt
GQ=50g
IQ=0.5mt
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ=NA
IQ=NA
12.5mt
Total= GQ=250kg
            IQ=15mt
1991
NA
GQ=500kg
IQ=4mt
NA
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
10.62mt
Total = GQ=500kg
             IQ=14.62mt
1992
NA
GQ=100kg
IQ=1mt
NA
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ= NA IQ= NA
6mt
Total = GQ=100kg
             IQ=7mt
1993
NA
GQ=250g
IQ=0.25mt (?)
GQ=250g
IQ=0.25mt (?)
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
5mt
Total = GQ=500kg
             IQ=5.5mt (?)
1994
NA
GQ=NA
IQ=NA
NA
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
2.204mt
Total= GQ=NA
            IQ=2.204mt
1995
NA
GQ=250kg
IQ=2.05mt
NA
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
1.864mt

Total = GQ= 250kg
            IQ= 3.914mt
1996
NA
GQ=950kg
IQ=2.95mt
NA
IQ= NA
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
1.5mt
Total = GQ= 950kg
             IQ= 3.45
1997
NA
GQ=500kg
IQ=5mt
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
3mt
Total = GQ= 500kg
             IQ= 8mt
1998
NA
GQ=500kg
IQ=20mt
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
2mt
Total = GQ= 500kg
             IQ= 22mt
1999
NA
GQ=500kg
IQ=10mt
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
3.2mt
Total = GQ= 500kg
              IQ= 13.2mt
2000
NA
GQ=10kg
IQ=1mt
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
NA
Total = GQ= 10kg
             IQ= 1mt
2001
NA
GQ=NA
IQ=NA
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ=1000kg
IQ=10mt
1.13mt
Total = GQ= 1000kg
            IQ= 11.13mt
2002
NA
GQ=NA
IQ=2mt
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ=1004kg
IQ=9.4mtmt
GQ=1720kg
IQ=172mt
Total = GQ= 2724kg
             IQ= 183.4mt
2003
NA
GQ=1100kg
IQ=11.5mt
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ=420kg
IQ=3.8mt
GQ=1765kg
IQ=176mt
Total = GQ= 3285kg
             IQ= 191.3mt
2004
NA
GQ=NA
IQ=NA
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ=1150kg
IQ=10.4mt
GQ=1215kg
IQ=121mt
Total = GQ= 2365kg
             IQ= 131.4mt
2005
NA
GQ=700gm
IQ=7mt
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ=2880kg
IQ=26.82mt
GQ=1092kg
IQ=109.2mt
Total=GQ4672kg
           IQ=133.02mt
2006
NA
GQ=660kg
IQ=6.6mt
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
GQ=NK
IQ=NK
GQ=2300kg
IQ=20.7mt
GQ=949kg
IQ=9.49mt
Total= GQ=3.91kg
             IQ=36.79mt
2007
NA
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
GQ= NA
IQ= NA
GQ=NA
IQ=NA
GQ=NA
IQ=NA
Total GQ= 2715kg
           IQ= 21.19mt
Source: DMG, Planning Section, 2010.   GQ = Gem quality    IQ = Industrial quality                 NK = Not known NA=Not Available


CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

            It is very clear from the published documents, reports and existing available information from different sources that there are a number of gemstone prospects in Nepal Himalaya. Till this time only surfacial study of few gemstone occurrences has been done based on the saying of the local people. Therefore available valuable gemstone (precious and semiprecious stones) resource remained unexplored and unexploited. Therefore, a special team should be managed to asses all the available information and do field mapping as well as gemstone exploration in the geologically most prospective areas in the Higher Himalayan as well as in the Lesser Himalayan regions is urgently need to identify the economic deposits.

            Government should be very strict and give heavy punishment to those who is running illegal and haphazard mining activities to save the national valuable natural resources available in the country. Exploration or mining license should be given only to those entrepreneurs who have the technical manpower and proper equipment for gem mining. Regular checking from the local authority, and inspection, monitoring and supervision by the Department of Mines and Geology to know the mining condition, equipment and man power used, safety measure, methodology applied, and the quantity of production, environment issues etc. to flourish gemstone of the country.

            DMG should regularly publish all the updated information/ data on the exploration license, mining license, and annual production of different mineral commodities and also highlight on the possibility of national and international market so that government can attract interested entrepreneurs/ private companies to invest in mineral exploration, development and mining sector.   

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

            The author would like to extend his sincere thanks to Mr. S. P. Mahato, Director General for providing access to the library and mineralogical museum of DMG. Cooperation of Mr. H. R. Khan, DDG, Mr. K. D. Jha, Chief Planning Section, and Mr. D. R. Khadka, Senior Geologist of DMG to prepare the paper is highly acknowledged."


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