Saturday, December 3, 2011

Geological and Hydro-Meteorological Hazards and Their Risk in Nepal


Krishna P. Kaphle
Majurmarg-60, Panipokhari, Maharajgunj, Kathmandu, Nepal, e-mail:kpkaphle@gmail.com

Abstract

Geological and hydro-meteorological hazards are common in all parts of Nepal. In many cases both of them are interrelated and initiate each other to bring the disaster. Because of the location of Nepal in the geo-dynamically very active Himalayan belts it frequently suffers from these hazards and there is a considerable loss of about 865 lives every year (on average), huge loss of properties and damage of infrastructures. Hazard when interact with vulnerability it brings the disasters in the affected areas. Hazard maps are very important for disaster management, land use planning, infrastructure development planning, environment protection etc. Such maps identify the risk areas so that precautionary measures against possible disaster can be taken in advance. Preparation of hazard maps, their application to identify different types of hazards and possible risk areas and take precautionary measures to save the vulnerable people, public properties and infrastructures are extremely important in disaster risk management and environment protection. There is a need of good coordination and combined efforts of the government, NGOs, INGOs as well as bilateral and multilateral agencies to deal with all types of disaster and save the vulnerable people, infrastructures and protect the natural environment.     

1. Introduction

It is believed that the Himalayan Mountain Belt (Greater Himalaya) is the result of collision of the Indian plate with the Eurasian (Tibetan) plate (Fig.1) in Tertiary time and it was succeeded by the uplift of the Himalayas. Subduction of Indian plate under the Tibetan plate is still continued. The Nepal Himalaya occupies the central part of 2500km long youngest and highest mountain belt in the earth (Fig.2). Because of its location in the Himalaya, complex geology, rugged topography and continues geodynamic activities there in, Nepal Himalaya as a whole is prone to different types of hazard. In the world scenario Nepal is ranked in 11th position among 200 countries with respect to earthquake risk and 30th in terms of flood risk. The residents of this region as a whole are vulnerable to Earthquake. There are more than 3000 glacier lakes in the Higher Himalayan regions of Nepal. Among them 27 glacier lakes are very dangerous and they can burst any time and then create Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) disaster in the downstream. In Nepal other main natural hazards (geogenic and climatological or combined) are landslide, debris flow, soil erosion, flood, land subsidence, sinkholes, thunderstorm, windstorm, hail storm, hot or cold waves etc.  Among these hazards, depending on the geological conditions, climatic factors, topography and slope soil erosion, landslides, debris flow, rock avalanche etc. are common in the hilly regions of Lesser Himalayan and Sub-Himalayan regions. The flat piedmont plain areas in Terai and lower parts of mid valleys in the midlands and dune valleys in Sub-Himalaya are susceptible to floods hazards during cloud burst and heavy monsoon rain. Flooding in some parts of the Terai is also due to the blockage of the flow of a natural drainage system by human activities.
            
Fig.1: Collision of the Indian Plate with Tibetan Plate and formation of the Himalaya Fig.2: Location of Nepal Himalaya
All types of hazards when interact with vulnerability bring the disasters which disturb the normal life and social system, degrade the environments and aggravate the poverty and ecosystem in the affected areas. In last 27 years natural disasters have caused tremendous losses of lives and property in Nepal. The disasters have brought about the average loss of about 6% of the annual development expenditure of the government. Both the natural and anthropogenic disasters are deteriorating the natural environment in Nepal

Nepal Himalaya can be divided into five distinct morpho-geotectonic zones (Fig.3) separated by major linear geological structures (Thrusts/ Faults). Each thrust/ fault forms the tectonic boundary line between the two consecutive zones and control the basic frame work of the Himalaya. All of them dip towards north.  MCT is the oldest thrust among them. MFT is the youngest and most active ones. However, other thrusts are also contributing in geodynamic activities and causes geogenic hazards like earthquake, landslide, debris flow, rock avalanche, soil erosion, land subsidence, sinkholes and similarly Hydro-meteorological hazards like many cases both of them are interrelated and initiate each other to bring the disaster. Each zone is under risk of some hazards and they are described in brief.

The Inner Himalaya (Tibetan Tethys) Zone lies in the northern most part of the Himalayan belt in between Tsangpo Suture Zone in the north and South Tibetan Detachment Fault System (STDFS) in the south. The common geohazards in this zone are earthquake, ice avalanche, windstorm and drought. The Higher Himalaya (HH) region lies in between STDFS in the north and Main Central Thrust (MCT) in the south (Fig.3). In this region the common geohazards are Glaciers and GLOF, Ice avalanche, Earthquake and Debris flow. Similarly the Lesser Himalayan (LH) zone lies in between the MCT in the north and MBT in the south. This zone is prone to natural hazards like Earthquake, Landslide, Flood, Debris flow, Soil erosion, Thunder/ wind storm, Hailstone etc. At places land subsidence in Kathmandu valley has already started and sinkholes are common hazards in some parts of Pokhara. The Sub-Himalaya/ Siwalik Foot Hills (SH) lie in between MBT in the north and MFT in the south. MFT is very active and can be traced at many places in Dharan, Sindhuli, Butwal and Godabari (Kailali) area. Earthquake, Soil erosion, Landslide, Debris flow, Rock block fall, Flood, fire, Epidemic are the main hazards that frequently hit this area. The Terai Plain (TP) area is the northern fringe of Indogangatic plain. It lies towards south of the Siwalik foot hills and extend east to west throughout the country. The possible common hazards in this area are the earthquake, flood, soil erosion, river bank cutting/ collapse, cold & hot waves, fire, epidemic etc.

3. Common Hazards and Their Risk in Nepal

3.1 Earthquake
From Microseismicity map of Nepal (Fig.4) one can see very clearly that a number of earthquakes of small magnitude (<4), moderate magnitude (4 to <6) and few with high magnitude (>6) had occurred in the past. Similarly Earthquake Hazard map of Nepal (Fig.5) indicate that there is a high risk from the earthquake. Mid-western and Far-western part of Nepal is much more vulnerable to earthquake than Eastern Nepal. It is known from various research works that loss of lives, the amount of destruction of infrastructures and houses mainly depends on the magnitude of the earthquake, the strength of the ground/ foundation, structural engineering design and the quality of the construction materials used. If we see the records of the past earthquake in last 100 years eight major earthquakes measuring 7.5 or more on the Richter scale have already stuck the Himalayan regions (Table-1). In 1934 Nepal-Bihar great earthquake (magnitude 8.4) about 8519 people lost their lives and about 207,248 houses were damaged in Nepal (Rana 1935). Out of which about 4296 lives were lost and 80,890 houses were damaged (Fig.6) in Kathmandu Valley alone (Pandey and Molnar 1988).

     Fig.4: Microseismicity map of Nepal (Source, DMG)

Recent studies carried out by different organizations and individuals have shown that Kathmandu is ranked as one of the world's most vulnerable cities for an earthquake disaster. DMG/NSC (2007); and JICA (2002) reported that if an earthquake similar to that of 1934 hits the Kathmandu valley, there will be a huge loss of lives and property. The Kathmandu Valley Earthquake Risk Management Project (KVERMP, 1999) has predicted that an earthquake similar to that of 1934 would cause 40,000 deaths and 95,000 serious injuries from 600,000 to 900,000 residents of the Kathmandu valley could be homeless and almost 60% of the infrastructures will be either damaged (40%) or destroyed (20%). Many losses will bring by creeping disasters such as fire, epidemic etc. after the earthquake.
Fig.5: Earthquake Hazard Map of Nepal

Table-1: Some major Historical Earthquakes in Nepal
Year
Richter scale
People killed
Houses destroyed
Remarks
1255AD
>8
No proper records
No proper records
No proper records exist
1310BS
Big earthquake
No proper records
No proper records
No proper records exist
1373BS
"
No proper records
No proper records
No proper records exist
1810AD
>8
No proper records
No proper records
Almost 30% people of KTM valley were affected
1833AD
7.8
No record
4214 houses collapsed
KTM valley highly affected
1866AD
>8
No proper records
No proper records
No proper records available
1934AD
8.4
8519
80,890 houses collapsed and 207,248 damaged
Huge loss of lives, properties and damage of infrastructures.
1966AD
6.5 - 7
24
>1300 houses collapsed
Hilly districts of Far-western Nepal
1980AD
6.5
178 died and injured 391
40,000 houses damaged
Far-western Nepal
1988AD
6.6
721 died and 6553 injured
65,432,houses collapsed 235,403 damaged
Houses and physical structures collapsed
Source: Earthquake Catalogue                                                                                                         
Fig.6: Bhaktapur Durbar square, before and after the 1934 earthquake.

3.2 Landslide and Debris Flow
Landslides are the most common geogenic hazards that affect some parts of the country every year. Topography, high angle slopes, fragile geology, deforestation, haphazard road cuttings, improper cultivation practices on high angle sloppy lands in the mountain region and high precipitation during monsoon time are the major causes of soil erosion and landslides in Nepal (Fig.7 & 8). High intensity rainfall (cloud burst), earthquake etc. contribute to trigger landslides. As a result loss of lives, damage/ blockage of road, destruction of houses, and other infrastructures, cultivated land/ crops etc. take place. Some of the examples are the occurrences of more than 2000 landslides in 7 districts of Central Nepal during 1993 landslide and flood disaster. Tribhuvan Highway was washed away at 20 places and 3 major concrete reinforced bridges on Agra Khola, Belkhu Khola and Malekhu Khola along Prithivi Highway were collapsed. In this disaster 1336 people lost their lives, 408,109 people of 72,091 families were affected and 32,765 houses were collapsed and infrastructures of millions of Dollars were damaged (MOHA).

Fig.7: Jyotinagar/ Srawandanda Landslide in Butwal, Rupandehi district (37 houses collapsed)

Fig.8: Laprak Landslide in Gorkha district (Source R.P, Khanal, DMG) >500 houses and 2600 people on risk

Fig.9: Seti River Bank/ Highway Bridge Collapse, Pokhara  Fig.10: Partial Filling of Phewa Lake by debris materials/ sediments brought by streams from their catchment area, Pokhara.

3.3 Flood
Flood is also another most frequent hazard that is becoming an annual episode due to heavy and prolong rain fall during monsoon season in Nepal. The low land areas in Terai and some parts of mid valleys are frequently suffered from flood hazard. It is because of poor land and water management system. Flooding also takes place due to blockage of natural drainage by huge landslide and man made structures like dam or bunds. Severe flood causes flood disaster and the extent of damage of infrastructures and loss of properties and lives is hard to predict. From the records of 1983 - 2009 it is clear that almost 35% of the total death is due to flood and landslide (Disaster Review-2010). The huge amount of sediments carried out by the rivers from the mountains during landslide/ debris flow and deposited them in low lands or in lakes (Fig.10). Occasionally debris flow deposit blocks the river as a result it changes the course and gets flooded large areas. Squatter settlements along the river bank, old flood plains or terraces and at the base of slope or on old landslide debris deposits are vulnerable to flood and landslides. In many cities encroachment of river banks and flood plain areas by the people and haphazard construction of houses and compound walls etc. have narrowed down the stream course. As a result during heavy rain fall they suffered from bank cutting and damage of bridge embankments and flooding on either sides as a result damaging houses and infrastructures (e.g. in Bagmati, Bishnumati, Tukucha and other streams in Kathmandu; Seti river in Pokhara; Sardu Khola and Seuti Khola in Dharan; Tinau Khola in Butwal; Rapti Khola in Hetaunda etc.). Settlements along the Seti River banks and Laltin Bazaar in Pokhara are vulnerable to block fall due to bank collapse and flooding due to blockage of river flow respectively. Because of river bank cutting and block fall the highway bridge on Seti River in Pokhara was collapsed in 1991 (Fig.9). Settlements on low lands by the side of Tinau River and in between Danab Khola and Tinau River in Butwal and Sardu and Seuti Khola in Dharan are highly vulnerable to flood disaster. Koshi flood (2008, Fig11) eroded river banks, damaged the protection spurs and flooded many villages and completely destroyed the houses, properties and crops.
Fig.11: Koshi River flood disaster 2008 (Source, Kantipur daily). Fig.12: Thulagi Glacial Lake (source ICIMOD) 

3.4 Glacier Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)

In the last 100 years, because of global warming and consequently rapid melting of glaciers has created a number of glacial lakes due to blocking the glaciers by its terminal moraines and ice blocks in the Higher Himalayan region of Nepal. There are more than 3000 glacial lakes, out of which 27 are dangerous that can burst at any time. Their size and volume of water are increasing year after year. Once the force of impounded water (glacier lake, Fig.12) increased or some seismic vibrations takes place due to earthquakes such blocked structure can be burst and sudden release of voluminous water as glacier lake outburst flood causing damage the infrastructures, public properties and loss of lives further downstream by sudden flow of huge amount of debris and flood water mainly in the Lesser Himalaya and Sub Himalaya region all along the river courses, their banks and cultivated terraces. Only after the events of 1985 Dig Tso GLOF and its severe effect like damage of Namche hydropower plant, agriculture lands etc. the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DH&M) and ICIMOD had started their study on most dangerous 6 glacier lakes and possible GLOF (Mool, P.K. et al 2001). Out of these, Tsho Rolpa glacier in Koshi River and Thulagi glacier in Marshyangdi River are well studied. Now as a precautionary measure for preparedness work has been done by releasing some volume of water by siphon system and establishing early warning systems (Siren) in Tsho Rolpa. Such early warning system could help the people residing downstream to reach a safe place and save life and some properties in case of GLOF.

3.5 Land Subsidence and Sinkhole Hazard
Land subsidence problem arises mainly in the urban areas like Kathmandu and Pokhara. It is due to the weak ground consisting of loose soft sediment, over extraction of the ground water and construction of heavy structures like multi story buildings in Kathmandu Valley. Karstification is widespread in the form of sinkholes, cavities, cavern and subsoil pinnacles in Pokhara valley, mainly in the west of Seti River especially in old city area, dam site, Devid fall, Gupteshor areas (Fig.13) and in Hengja area are prone to sinkholes.

            
Fig13: A big sinkhole in Pokhara, Old Gupteshor                 Fig.14: Thunderstorm and lightning

3.6 Windstorm and Thunder Storm
These hazards are quite common in Nepal mainly during the month of May - July. Every year some people lost their lives and loss properties by these disasters (Fig.14) in different parts of Nepal. Thunderstorm normally follows lightning events and many times rainfall is associated with hailstones. The storm of 1991 has affected 121 families and 60 people loss their lives. In 1994 about 47 people died, 74 injured, 4440 families affected and 312 houses were destroyed, and similarly in 1996 about 75 people died by these disaster. In the last 27 years, almost 700 people lost their lives by such disasters (source MOHA).

3.7 Natural Radiation
Natural radiations from radioactive bodies are due to continues emanations of Gamma rays which can cause health hazard like cancer, birth defects etc. in the long run. Such radioactive bodies are recorded in different parts of Makwanpur (Fig.15A), Sindhuli, Kathmandu, Baitadi (Fig.15B), and Darchula districts. Suitable precautionary measures are warranted in such vulnerable areas.

Fig.15A: Radioactive body in Tinbhangale, Makwanpur and Fig.15B in Gorang, Baitadi (Kaphle & Khan 1989).
Beside these above mentioned hazards there are few other common hazards that have created disaster in different part of Nepal. They are Fire, Cold and hot waves and Epidemic. Therefore, they are also briefly described here even if they are not geology related hazards.

3.8 Fire
Fire hazard arises mainly by human activities or sometime by thunder storm/ lightning or by any other ways like electric shut or gas leakage etc. Fire disasters are particularly common during dry season mostly in Terai areas where roof of the houses are made up of dry bamboo and hays. 109 persons lost their lives by fire in 1989. Similar events in 1992 has destroyed 13,876 houses and 10,956 families were affected and 97 people lost their lives, and in 1994 about 4440 families were affected, 312 houses were caught by fire, 47 persons died and 74 persons were injured.  In the last 25 years about 1300 people lost their lives by fire disaster.

3.9 Epidemic
Epidemic is neither a geo-hazard nor a hydro-meteorological hazard but it appears to be the main killer in Nepal (Table-2 and Fig. 16). Epidemics like outbreak of cholera, typhoid, diarrhea, gastrointritis, pneumonia, measles, encephalitis and meningitis are frequently recorded in remote hilly areas and densely populated cities and in Terai. Most of them are caused by the poor sanitation and low quality of drinking water. Epidemic of 1989 had caused death of 879 people and 2986 affected. Similarly 1101 people in 1996 and 1128 people in 1992, and 1207 people in 1999 loss their lives by epidemic. In the last 27 year's time just over 12,000 people (almost 52% of the total death) loss their lives due to epidemic (Disaster Review-2010).

Table-2: Historical records of loss of lives by different disasters in last 23 years (1983 – 2005)
Hazard/ Disaster
Loss of lives
 
Fig.16: Percentage of loss of lives due to different types of disasters in Nepal (1983 – 2005)
 
Total losses
Millions USD
Earthquake
727

Landslide, Flood, GLOF
7084

Windstorm & Thunder
636

Avalanche
102

Fire
1196

Epidemic
12024

Stampede
71

Total
21,840
Billions of Dollars
Source: MOHA and DWIDP Disaster Review
                            
            Explanation:1= Earthquake, 2 = Flood, Landslide and GLOF, 3 = Wind storm/ Thunder, 4 = Avalanche, 5 = Fire, 6 = Epidemic,  7 = Stampede.

4. Geohazards and Environmental Degradation in Nepal

Environment is our surroundings i.e. atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. Natural Environment is mainly influenced by (a) Geology (Ground condition/ Rock and Soil types) (b) Topography (c)  Drainage  (d) Climatic condition (e) Deforestation (f) Changes in natural physical features (g) Unplanned infrastructure development works (h) Haphazard urbanization and expansion of settlement areas (i) Improper locations of industries and industrial areas (Fig.17, 18A, 19, 20) (j) Improper land use (k) Mismanagement of sewage drains and solid waste  (Fig18A, 18B, 21) (l) Over use of insecticide and chemical fertilizer (m) Ground/ water/ air pollution and (n) contamination of drinking water (Fig.22) etc. Natural hazards like earthquake, soil erosion, landslide, debris flow, flood, GLOF, volcanic eruptions, tsunami, snow melting, sea level rising, glacial lake outburst floods, storms/ cyclone etc. bring the changes on the dynamic earth. All these hazards along with day to day human activities aggravate the fragile eco-system in the affected urban or rural areas and degrade the natural environment. Human activities interact with nature in every region and natural dynamics of the earth bring the natural changes in the earth. There is ever increasing of population pressure in an alarming rate in most of the fast growing/ developing urban areas like in Kathmandu, Pokhara, Butwal, Bhairahawa, Hetaunda, Dharan, Janakpur, Biratnagar, Nepalgunj, Surkhet, Dhangadhi etc.

Fig.17: Air pollution from Dabar Nepal and Hetaunda cement industries in Hetaunda.

Fig.18A: Haphazard disposal of decayed organic materials and chemicals from a Leather factory Fig.18B: Disposal of solid waste by the sides of road in Biratnagar

Fig.19: Stone crushing Plants close to Highway, near Thankot, Kathmandu and Fig.20: Brick kilns in the
middle of settlement a source of air pollution causes of health hazard.

High population growth rate and migration of people from rural areas to urban areas in search of jobs, business, education, health, safety, and other opportunities for livelihood there has been uncontrolled expansion of urban areas without any consideration of the geological and environmental aspects. All these natural and human induced hazards are helping to induce disaster and environmental degradation that directly affecting the people and their livelihood.
FIg.21: Trees are dying due to haphazard disposal of Solid waste in the middle of the Forest
                in Bharatpur/ Narayanghat Municipality.

Fig.22: Water Pollution due to high Arsenic content in ground water. Drinking such water caused Arsenicosis in hands and foots (a symptoms of health hazard)

 
 

5. Effects of Global Warming and Climate Change

Global warming is a world wide problem. Due to global warming the climate is changing year after year. As a result snowline in the high snow capped mountain is going up, snow in the mountain is melting at fast rate, the number of glaciers and their size are decreasing/ receding, as a consequence the number and size of the glacier lakes are increasing. One of the example is about sixty years ago there was no glacial lake in Imja glacier but now there appears a huge glacial lake (Fig.23) which is the result of global warming and snow melting. This glacier can burst at any time and bring GLOF disaster. 
    Fig.23: Melting of  Imja Glacier and Development of Glacier Lakes due to Global warming (Source ICIMOD)

6. Disaster Management System in Nepal

6.1 Disaster Management
Disaster management is the effective management of available resources and their proper utilization for the pre-disaster preparedness and post-disaster rescue, relief operation for the benefit of the disaster victims. Nepal has accumulated considerable experiences in disaster management after the 1988 earthquake in eastern Nepal and landslide and flood of 1993 in Central Nepal. Both of them were related to the post disaster rescue and relief operations. For pre-disaster preparedness activities like preparation of hazard maps, follow building code during construction, retrofitting of schools, hospital and public buildings, special training to 12,000 police force and some military personnel as well as civil servants, organizing public awareness programs, development of warning system, proper storage of relief materials, alert of rescue groups, studies and research on various types of natural hazards and anthropogenic hazards at government and other non government agencies/ institutions are putting considerable efforts on disaster management in Nepal. Now the focus is a bit diverted from post disaster to pre-disaster preparedness. Out of 75 districts 20 districts are selected as highly disaster prone districts on the basis of total disaster factors (i.e. high casualties and affected families in 2005/DWIDP-2005). Nepal Red Cross Society with coordination with government organizations and international agencies is doing excellent work in this aspect.

Natural disasters cannot be stopped and they are not yet amendable to modification or prevention. However, their impacts can be reduced significantly with the help of proper methods of disaster management focusing on pre-disaster preparedness activities. This was the central message of IDNDR declared by the UN for 1990 – 1999 AD. Disaster Management Strategy includes the whole cycle of disaster management, starting from preparedness, mitigation, rescue, relief and reconstruction to rehabilitation. Public awareness raising by training, workshops, organizing earthquake safety day, rehearsal and drill etc. and arrangements of early warning system are the part of preparedness. Government has understood the importance of contingency planning for disaster management. Exercises are going on for contingency planning for different scenario in emergency situation. The government is aware of various types of disaster in the country. To meet the challenges National Action Plan for disaster management was prepared in 1996 which has been updated in 2005. A "Comprehensive Data Base (Basic information) on Natural Disaster Management Capabilities in Nepal" is prepared (Kaphle and Nakarmi 1997). But in developing countries like Nepal till to day main focuses are given in post disaster rescue/ relief operation and rehabilitation. The concept of predisaster preparedness has to be delivered to the common people at village and primary school level and get priority in national action plan so that vulnerable population, properties and infrastructures can be saved from the possible disaster. Such pre-disaster measures are taken to prevent or mitigate the disaster.

6.2 Organization Structure
Natural Calamity Relief Act-1982 (amended in 1989 and 1992) has constituted an organizational structure through which rescue, relief, rehabilitation and resettlement programs are being carried out. In Nepal, Ministry of Home Affair (MOHA) is the national focal point for managing all types of disaster management. Minister of Home is the Chairman of Central Disaster Relief Committee (CDRC) which is the Apex body that is responsible for formulating policies and plans with regards to overall aspects of disaster management in coordination with other key disaster actors. Minister of Health and Minister of Housing and Physical Planning are the Chief and responsible persons with regard to Relief and Treatment Sub-committee and Supply Shelter, Rehabilitation Sub-committee respectively. Regional Disaster Relief Committee (RDRC), District Disaster Relief Committee (DDRC) and Village Disaster Relief Committee (VDRC) are the different organizations at different level. CDRC and DDRC are functional where as RDRC and local level VDRC are active only after the disaster mainly for rescue and relief operation time.

7. Conclusion and Recommendation

In Nepal among the natural hazards geogenic and climatological hazards are the major ones which can bring the disaster at any time. Therefore, the disaster risk management plan must equally focus on pre-disaster activities as the post disaster activities to save the vulnerable people and infrastructures. Hazards like earthquake, landslide, debris flow, flood, land subsidence, sinkholes etc. should be treated as important parameters during planning, designing and construction phase of the infrastructures, buildings etc.
Department of Mines and Geology is regularly publishing geological maps and landslide hazard zonation maps of different parts of Nepal; Engineering and Environmental geological map of fast growing major cities of Nepal; and Microseismicity map and Seismic hazard maps of Nepal. But similar flood hazard maps, GLOF hazard maps, radiation hazard maps etc. are still lacking. All these maps are very important for infrastructure development planning, hazard mitigation, disaster risk management, environmental protection etc.

Government should prepare an effective comprehensive management plan for disaster preparedness. National Action Plan must be implemented by different concerning government agencies with close cooperation of UN agencies, donors and NGOs just to make easy to manage the disaster.

The government, NGOs, INGOs as well as bilateral and multilateral agencies have least coordination and most of them are even dealing with disaster in isolation. Therefore, there is an immediate need of coordination among all these partners and related organizations. Only then the objective of disaster management could be fulfilled. Local people and committees are the first victims of natural disaster and also the first respondents. Without their participation, disaster cannot be well managed.

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