Geohazards and Environmental Degradation in Some Urban Areas of Nepal

Krishna P. Kaphle*, L.N. Rimal, A.K. Duwadi, B. Piya, and D. Nepali 

Department of Mines and Geology, Lainchaur, Kathmandu, Nepal

E-mail:kkaphle@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT

Nepal lies in the central part of the seismo-tectonically active Himalayan belt. It is prone to natural hazards like earthquake, landslide, debris flow, flood, glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) etc. In the last 23 years natural disasters had caused tremendous losses of lives, properties and severe damage of infrastructures costing billions of dollar and consequently GDP loss and overall set back of development. The annual loss in average is about 6% of the average annual development expenditure of the government. Their frequency is also increasing due to high rate of population growth and multiple human activities. Disaster disturbs the social system, degraded the environment, aggravate the poverty and eco-system in the affected areas. Both natural and man made hazards are deteriorating the natural environments mostly in urban areas of Nepal. Since there is no effective weather forecasting and early warning system for such disasters there will be no time for the vulnerable people to save from possible disaster by taking themselves in safe places. Previously the Nepal government put its efforts mainly on post disaster activities like rescue, relief and rehabilitation. Only after the 1985 Dig Tso GLOF, 1988 earthquake in eastern Nepal, and 1993 Flood and Landslide disaster in Central Nepal and their severe effects causing tremendous loss of lives, properties and damage of infrastructures, the government and the people realized about the importance of pre-disaster preparedness. For preparedness and mitigation of hazards geological, geomorphological, hydro-geological information and hazard maps are extremely important. Now, the government as well as the people is a bit aware of disaster events and their unpleasant devastating results. They also realized that the effect of disasters can be reduced considerably if the people are timely well prepared to face such disasters. After the experiences of the above three major disasters the government has developed the capabilities in emergency response. As a result logistic support management system is fairly improved.

Under the provision given in Natural Calamity Relief Act 1982, Natural Disaster Relief Committees like central, regional, district and village/ local level have been formed. Central Disaster Relief Committee (CDRC) and District Disaster Relief Committee (DDRC) play very active role in close cooperation and coordination with UN bodies, Nepal Red Cross Society, NGOs and INGOs in post disaster activities like response, rescue and relief operation and rehabilitations works. In 1994 the Yokohama Strategy for a safe world provided guidance on reducing disaster risk. The Government of Nepal had prepared the National Building Code in 1994 and the first National Action Plan for disaster management in 1996 and partly implemented it. The Action Plan has been updated in 2005 but still sufficient importance is not given for preparedness at any level except enforcement of national building code in few municipalities, some announcement on radio and television about the precautionary measures for fire in dry season, epidemic in rainy season and daily weather forecast and early warning system for Tso Rolpa glacier lake. As a part of preparedness the Government organizations, UN organizations, NGOs and INGOs have started to make the people aware of various types of disasters and their possible effect by giving training, rehearsal, drill etc. They are also lunching disaster management programs in most vulnerable 20 districts. At the same time the concerning Government departments are preparing and publishing hydrological and meteorological information, geological maps, hazard maps, engineering and environmental geological maps which are quite helpful for infrastructure development planning, disaster management, environment protection of urban as well as other parts of the country. Recently to meet the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) the government is exercising to make the development work programs compatible with the disaster management so that to reach the national goal as identified by poverty reduction strategy plan (PRSP) to alleviate the poverty in the country.

This paper is the result of compilation of the works carried out by the authors in last eight years and other available information from different sources.

INTRODUCTION

Himalayan belt is the result of collision of Indian plate with the Eurasian (Tibetan) plate. It is bounded within two syntaxial bands of Brahmaputra River in the east and Indus River in the west. Nepal Himalaya lies in the central part of the 2400km long Himalayan belt and occupies about 1/3^rd part of it. Because of its location in the Himalaya, rugged topography, high relief, high angle of slopes, high precipitation during monsoon, variable climatic conditions, complex geology with sharp linear thrust/ fault structures, active tectonic process and continued seismic activities there in, Nepal as a whole is prone to various types of natural hazards. Deforestation and haphazard development activities such as construction of roads, improper land use etc. has made many areas vulnerable to disaster.

Almost all the geo-hazards are natural hazards. When hazard interact with vulnerability the disaster risk arises. Depending on the magnitude disaster could be highly disastrous (causing tremendous damages) or bring a minor destruction. In Nepal the main natural hazards are Earthquake, Landslide, Debris Flow, Flood, Glacial Lake Outburst Flood, Thunder storm, Windstorm, Hailstorm, Land subsidence, Sinkholes etc. and anthropogenic hazards are mainly Fire, Epidemic etc. Since Nepal lies in the tectonically active Himalayan belt almost all parts of it are prone to earthquake hazard. Depending on the topography and climatic factors, soil erosion, landslides, debris flow are quite common in the hilly regions. Flat piedmont plains of Terai and lower part of mid valleys in the midlands are susceptible to floods during cloud burst/ heavy monsoon rain. In many cases, in Terai flooding is due to blockage of natural drainage by man made structures. More than 3000 glacier lakes are recorded in the Higher Himalayan regions of Nepal. It is reported that 27 of them can burst at any time as glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF). Beside these almost every year smaller or larger part of the country is stuck by drought, wind storm, thunder storm, hailstorm, epidemic, fire etc. causes  huge losses in terms of human lives (on average 950 people annually) and damage public properties and infrastructures. All types of natural and man induced hazards are deteriorating the natural environment and increasing the degree of water, ground and air pollution mainly in urban areas of Nepal.

COMMON GEOHAZARDS AND THEIR RISK SCENARIO IN NEPAL

From World Disaster record it is known that 80% of disaster happened in Asia. South Asia is the most disaster prone region in the world. Himalaya - Karakorum region is highly prone to earthquake. The most common natural hazards in Nepal are earthquake, landslide, debris flow, flood, GLOF, wind storm, hailstorms, thunder storm, hot & cold waves, soil erosion, land subsidence, sink holes etc. All these catastrophic events made some parts of the towns/ cities vulnerable and very dangerous place to live. A recent study report (UNDP/BCPR (UNDP 2004) ranked Nepal as the 11^th among 200 countries in terms of Earthquake risk and the 30^th in terms of  flood risk. Nepal is ranked as 2^nd highest with 13.58 death per million among the regional countries. Earthquake of 1934, 1980, 1988, flood of July 1993, Landslide of 2002 and Fire of 1989 were devastating. In last 23 years (1983 – 2005), every year on average 950 persons lost their lives by disasters. Death due to landslide and flood only is almost 1/3 of the total death. Similarly people died by epidemics are about 56% of the total death by different types of Disaster. Historical earthquake in Nepal (UN/UNCHS 1993, Pandey et al 1988, Bilham et al 1995, the major earthquakes recorded in nineteen century (1810, 1826, 1833, 1837, 1869, 1897) and in 20^th century (1917, 1934, 1936, 1954, 1966, 1980, 1988) are notable. Bilham (2001) reported that Nepal is under great threat of large earthquake of over 8 Richter scale. Kathmandu only will have over 40,000 death, 90,000 injuries and 60 – 70% houses damage.

According to the Ministry of Home Affair’s (MOHA) data, in the last 23 years (from 1983 to 2005) about 21,840 people lost their lives and over 28 billion rupees were lost due to disaster. More than 21,000 families are affected each year mainly due to the flood, landslide, wind storms, thunder storm, fire and epidemics in Nepal. Out of the affected families 16,000 households are affected due to flood and landslide alone. The average estimated property loss is about NRs.1208 million rupees per annum which come about 6% of the total development budget.

Earthquake

Earthquake is a geogenic hazard. The amount of destruction by the earthquake depends on its intensity, ground/ foundation and quality of construction materials used to construct houses. Eight major Earthquakes measuring 7.5 or more on the Richter scale had already occurred in the Himalaya in the last 100 years. In 1934 Nepal - Bihar great earthquake (8.3 Richter scale) 8519 people died and about 207,248 houses damaged in Nepal only. Out of which about 4296 lives were lost and 80,890 houses damaged (Ph.1) in Kathmandu valley alone (Rana, 1935, Pandey, 1988). Recent studies carried out by different organizations and individuals have shown that Kathmandu is ranked as one of the world’s most vulnerable city for an earthquake disaster. Kathmandu Valley Earthquake Risk Management Project (KVERMP, 1999) study report has predicted that an earthquake similar to that of 1934 would result 40,000 death and 95,000 serious injuries, 600,000 to 900,000 residents of Kathmandu valley could be homeless and almost 60% (destroyed 20% and damaged 40%) of the infrastructures damage or collapse permanently and huge economic losses. The over all damage will be unpredictable. Many losses will bring by creeping disasters like fire, epidemic etc. after the earthquake. Historical records indicated that Kathmandu valley was hit by major earthquakes many times in the history (Table-1). If we see the recurrence of earthquake history, the Kathmandu valley is highly prone to earthquake. KVERMP (1999) project report has also reported that 11,000 people lost their lives in 4 major earthquakes in this century. In 19^th century alone Nepal suffered from earthquake (>6 Richter scale) of 1810, 1833, 1866, 1897 and similarly in 20^th century in 1917, 1934, 1966, 1980 and 1988. The returned period indicate that a devastating earthquake (>8 Richter scale) is inevitable in near future.

A Japanese team (JICA, 2001 - 2002) studied Earthquake Disaster Mitigation in Kathmandu Valley and reported that if an earthquake similar to that of 1934 hits Kathmandu valley there will be huge loss of lives, properties and damage of infrastructures. Earthquakes in the Himalayan region could also trigger landslides, GLOAF and flood in the river downstream.

Table-1: Historical Earthquakes in Nepal

Year	Richter scale	People killed	Houses destroyed	Remarks
1255AD	>8	No proper records	No proper records	No proper records exist
1310BS	Large earthquake	No proper records	No proper records	No proper records exist
1373BS	"	No proper records	No proper records	No proper records exist
1810AD	>8	No proper records	No proper records	Almost 30% people of KTM valley were affected
1833AD	7.8	No record	4214 houses collapsed	KTM valley highly affected
1866AD	>8	No proper records	No proper records	No proper records available
1934AD	8.4	8519	80,890 houses collapsed and 207,248 damaged	Huge loss of lives, properties and damage of infrastructures.
1966AD	6.5 - 7	24	>1300 houses collapsed	Hilly districts of Far-western Nepal
1980AD	6.5	178 died and injured 391	40,000 houses damaged	Far-western Nepal
1988AD	6.6	721 died and 6553 injured	65,432 houses collapsed 235,403 damaged	Houses and physical structures collapsed

Source: Earthquake Catalogue

Till 1988 earthquake in eastern Nepal, efforts on implementation of earthquake risk management were not in priority. Only after this earthquake and flood disaster of 1993 in central Nepal the Disaster management activities were intensified in Nepal. Natural Calamity Act 1982 was implemented. The government has prepared the Building Code in 1994. However, the activities were mainly focuses on rescue, relief operation and rehabilitation works only. Since the UN declaration of 1990 – 1999 as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) a Natural Disaster Reduction Committee (Natural Calamity Relief Committee) was formed under the Ministry of Home Affairs. After that a National Action Plan for disaster management was formulated in 1996 and some programs were implemented. National Action Plan has been updated and presented in World Conference on Disaster Reduction in Kobe, Japan 18 - 22 January 2005.  Hyogo Framework for Action 2005 - 2015 reflects a holistic and multi hazard approach to disaster risk management and the relation between them.

Landslide and Debris Flow

Landslides are the most common geogenic hazards that affect some parts of the country every year. Topography, high angle slopes, fragile geology, deforestation, improper cultivation practices on sloppy lands in the mountain region and high precipitation during monsoon time are the causes of soil erosion and landslides in Nepal (Ph.2). High intensity rainfall (cloud burst), earthquake etc. contribute to trigger landslides. As a result loss of lives, damage/ blockage of road, destruction of houses, and other infrastructures, cultivated land/ crops etc. take place. Some of the examples are the occurrences of more than 2000 landslides in 7 districts of Central Nepal during 1993 landslide and flood disaster. Tribhuvan Highway was washed away at 20 places and 3 major concrete reinforced bridges on Agra Khola, Belkhu Khola and Malekhu Kholas along Prithivi Highway were collapsed. In this disaster 1336 people lost their lives, 408,109 people of 72,091 families were affected and 32,765 houses were collapsed and infrastructures of millions of Dollars were damaged (MOHA).

Ph.2

                                           Ph-3: Fewa lake is filled with the debris/ sediment and almost bridging the two banks

Similarly, huge and numerous landslides in the south and south east facing hills in Pokhara valley has brought huge amount of debris in the Phewa lakes  as a result almost half of the beautiful lake is already filled with the debris/ sediment and almost bridging the two banks of the lake (Ph.3). Another example is the huge landslide on the right bank of Tinau River in Butwal in 1978 that destroyed a highway reinforced concrete bridge and another huge landslide in 1998 has completely destroyed 37 houses and damages many houses and road. The highway bridge site and landslide in Butwal are located very close to Main Frontal Thrust. Natural dynamic forces and human activities have been the major factors which have induced landslide disaster in different parts of Nepal. Fragile geology, fractured rock mass, high precipitation, slope, unstable colluvial soil and old landslides, encroachment of land, toe cutting at the base of foot hill, severe deforestation are the causes of landslides in most parts of Nepal.

Flood

Flood is also one of the most frequent hazards that is becoming an annual episode due to heavy and prolong rain fall during monsoon in Nepal. The low land areas in Terai and some parts of mid valleys are frequently suffered from Flood hazard. It is partly because of poor land and water management. Flooding also takes place due to blockage of natural drainage by huge landslide and man made structures like dam or bunds. Severe flood causes flood disaster and the extent of damage of infrastructures and loss of properties and lives is hard to predict. The huge amount of sediments carried out by the rivers from the mountains mainly after landslide/ debris flow and deposit them in low lands. Occasionally debris flow deposit blocks the river as a result it changes the course and gets flooded large areas. Squatter settlements along the river bank, old flood plains or terraces and at the base of slope or on old landslide debris deposits are vulnerable to flood and landslides. In many cities encroachment of river banks and flood plain by the people and haphazard construction of houses and compound walls etc. have narrowed down the stream course. As a result during heavy rain fall they suffered from bank cutting and damage of bridge embankments and flooding on either sides as a result damaging houses and infrastructures (e.g. in Bagmati, Bishnumati, Tukucha and other streams in Kathmandu; Seti river in Pokhara; Sardu Khola and Seuti Khola in Dharan; Tinau Khola in Butwal; Rapti Khola in Hetaunda etc.). Settlements along the Seti River banks and Laltin bazar are vulnerable to Block fall and flooding respectively. Because of river bank cutting and block fall the highway bridge on Seti River in Pokhara was collapsed in 1991. Settlements on low lands by the side of Tinau River and in between Danab Khola and Tinau River in Butwal and Sardu and Seuti Khola in Dharan are highly vulnerable to flood disaster.

Glacier Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)

In the last 100 years, because of global warming and consequently rapid melting of glaciers has created a number of glacial lakes by blocking the glaciers by its terminal moraines in the Higher Himalayan region of Nepal. There are more than 3000 glacial lakes, out of which 27 are dangerous that can burst at any time. There size and volume of water is increasing year after year. Once the force of impounded water (glacier lake) increased or some seismic vibrations takes place due to earthquakes the blocked structure can be burst and sudden release of voluminous water as glacier lake outburst flood causing damage of infrastructures, properties and loss of lives further downstream by sudden flow of huge amount of debris and flood water mainly in the Lesser Himalaya and Sub Himalaya region all along the river courses, their banks and cultivated terraces.

Only after the events of 1985 Dig Tso GLOF and its severe effect like damage of Namche hydropower plant, agriculture lands etc. The Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DH&M) and ICIMOD had started their study on most dangerous 6 glacier lakes and possible GLOF (Mool, P.K. et al 2001). Out of these, Tsho Rolpa glacier in Koshi River and Thulagi glacier in Marshyangdi River were well studied. Now as a precautionary measure for preparedness work has been done by releasing of water by siphon system and establishing early warning systems (Siren) in Tsho Rolpa. Such early warning system could help the people residing downstream to reach a safe place and save life and some properties in case of GLOF. 

Windstorm and Thunder Storm

These are quite common in Nepal. Every year some people lost their lives and destroyed properties by these disasters in different parts of Nepal. The storm of 1991 has affected 121 families and 60 people loss their lives. In 1994 about 47 people died, 74 injured, 4440 families affected and 312 houses were destroyed, and similarly in 1996 about 75 people died by these disaster. In the last 23 years, 636 people lost their lives by such disasters (source MOHA).

Fire

Fire disasters are particularly common during dry season mostly in Terai areas of Nepal. 109 persons lost their lives by fire in 1989. Similar events in 1992 it has destroyed 13,876 houses and 10,956 families were affected and 97 people lost their lives, and in 1994 about 4440 families were affected, 312 houses were destroyed, 47 persons died and 74 persons were injured.  In the last 23 years 1196 people lost their lives by fire disaster.

Epidemic

Epidemic like outbreak of diarrhea, gastrointritis, typhoid, cholera, pneumonia, measles, encephalitis and meningitis are common in remote areas and densely populated areas in Terai. Most of them are caused by the poor sanitation and low quality of drinking water. Epidemic of 1989 had caused death of 879 people and 2986 affected. Similarly 1101 people in 1996 and 1128 people in 1992, and 1207 people in 1999 loss their lives by epidemic. In the last 23 year's time 12024 people loss their lives because of epidemic which appears to be the main killer (Table-2 & Fig.1).

Table-2: Historical records of loss of lives by different disasters in last 23 years (1983 – 2005)

Hazard/ Disaster	Loss of lives	Fig.1: Percentage of loss of lives due to different types of disasters in Nepal (1983 – 2005)   Total losses Millions USD
Earthquake	727
Landslide,Flood, GLOF	7084
Windstorm & Thunder	636
Avalanche	102
Fire	1196
Epidemic	12024
Stampede	71
Total	21,840	Billions of Dollars

Source: MOHA and DWIDP Disaster Review

1= Earthquake, 2 = Flood, Landslide and GLOF,

3 = Wind storm/ Thunder, 4 = Avalanche, 5 = Fire, 6 = Epidemic, 7 = Stampede,   

GEOHARDS AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IN NEPAL

Natural hazards like earthquake, soil erosion, landslide, debris flow, flood, GLOF, volcanic eruptions, tsunami, snow melting, sea level rising, glacial lake outburst floods, storms/ cyclone bring the changes on the dynamic earth. All these hazards along with day to day human activities aggravate the fragile eco-system in the affected urban or rural areas and degrade the natural environment. Human activities interact with nature in every regions of the earth. Natural dynamic of the earth bring the natural changes in the earth. There is ever increasing of population pressure in an alarming rate in most of the developing urban areas like in Kathmandu, Pokhara, Butwal, Bhairahawa, Hetaunda, Dharan, Janakpur, Biratnagar, Nepalgunj etc. High population growth rate and migration of people from rural areas to urban areas in search of jobs, business, education, health, and other opportunities for livelihood there has been uncontrolled expansion of urban areas without any consideration of the geological and environmental aspects. All these natural and human induced hazards are helping to induce disaster and environmental degradation that directly affecting the people and their livelihood.

CASE STUDIES

Department of Mines and Geology (DMG) carried out Engineering and Environment Geological Mapping and Hazard Assessment of some fast growing cities/ towns. In addition to these preliminary investigations were also carried out for landfill sites in few other towns (Fig.2). Some case studies are presented below.

Kathmandu Valley is an intramontane basin. It is filled with fluviolacustrine sediments. The thickness of the valley fill sediment varies considerably from less than 400m to 549m (Kaphle and Joshi 1998). There are good aquifers for groundwater. In many cases methane gas is mixed with groundwater as a result both of them can be extracted from the same deep well and utilized for house hold use. At present over extraction of groundwater has resulted high draw down of ground water level. There is an ever increasing trend of inflow of people from outside and construction of more houses and correspondingly increasing the demand of ground water.

Index:

Fig.2: Location map of studied urban areas  

Engineering and Environment Geological study completed

1. Kathmandu Valley/ Kathmandu Metropolitan City

2. Pokhara Valley/ PKR Sub-Metropolitan City

3. Butwal Municipality

4. Bhairahawa – Lumbini Area

Engineering and Environmental Geological study proposed/  Preliminary study carried out for Landfill sites selection

5. Dharan Municipality

6. Biratnagar Submetropolitan City

7. Hetaunda Municipality

8. Banepa Municipality

9. Bhartpur Municipality, 10. Tansen Municipality

11.Dhangarhi, 12. Tribhuvannagar, 13. Dhankuta Municipalities

All these human activities are helping to create problem of ground subsidence in some parts of Kathmandu valley in near future. Earthquake, Landslide, Flood, Riverbank erosion, Bank collapse etc. are the main hazards in Kathmandu valley. Landslides, block falls and soil erosion are common in the hilly regions around the valley. Few active faults are also helping to destabilize the ground. Unconsolidated saturated sandy sediment in Kathmandu Valley is also susceptible to liquefaction during earthquake which may cause heavy destruction of infrastructures, buildings and loss of lives in this capital city. Human activities like encroachment of riverbanks

of almost all the rivers/ kholas, improper land use and haphazard construction of buildings etc. are helping to make many parts of the Kathmandu city vulnerable to flood disaster.

Ph.4: Part of Kathmandu Metropolitan City

 Pokhara Valley has a unique natural beauty. The Pokhara city is situated on the Debris flow fluvio-glacial deposits (debris) that comprises of angular to sub angular boulders, gravels and rock fragments of carbonate rocks, marble, schist, gneiss etc. cemented with calcareous materials. The debris materials were derived mainly from Annapurna region in far northern parts and deposited them during three different catastrophic debris flow events along Seti River in the past (Upper Pleistocene to Holocene Epoch, 700 – 12,000 years before present). These sediments are rich in calcareous constituents and susceptible to karstification in the form of sinkholes, caverns and subsoil pinnacles (Koirala 1997, Kaphle 1998). Earthquake, sinkhole, land subsidence, block fall, bank erosion, landslide etc. are the main natural hazards in Pokhara valley. Sinkholes and land subsidence hazards are mainly recorded in northwestern part of old Pokhara city, south eastern part of Phewa Lake, Hengja bensi and at many other places mostly west of Seti River (Fig.3)

 Ph.5: Seti River Bank/ Highway Bridge Collapse, Pokhara

At places, Seti River made narrow deep gorges (up to 56m near Mahendrapool). Karst features (sinkholes, caves/caverns, pinnacles) and bank collapse features (Ph.5) are typical in Pokhara sediments. Several earthquakes greater than 4 Richter scale occurred within the valley and its close proximity in the past. The largest event was of 7 Richter earthquake of 1936 and 6.5 scale in 1954 which rocked Pokhara Valley and suffered from considerable damage loss of lives. It may face high degree of earthquake hazard in future. Soil erosion and landslides frequently occur in steep terrain/ hills around the valley, and deforestation and haphazard exploitation of construction materials have aggravated the situation. River bank erosion, bank collapse, block falls are common on both banks of Seti River and its tributary streams in Pokhara. The valley floor sediments are susceptible to bearing capacity and land subsidence, low lands by the sides of the rivers are prone to flood hazard.

Fig.3

Butwal Municipality is located at the base of Siwalik foot hills and situated right on the alluvial fan deposits of Tinau River. Some parts of Butwal municipality and surrounding regions are vulnerable to landslide, flood and earthquake. Since the east – west running two active thrusts e.g. Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) passes through the northern part of the city and another Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) passes from 10 - 12 km further north (Fig.4 Engineering and Environmental Geological Map of Butwal). Butwal is highly sensitive to earthquake. Because of geological condition, topography and climate the landslide and flood hazard are also frequent. Butwal town has already suffered many times from huge landslides in 1978, 1998 and 1999; flood in 1971, 1981, and 1998 and earthquake of 1969, 1971, 1990 and 1991. Presence of soft sedimentary rocks like interbedded sandstone and mudstone/ siltstone/ shale in the Siwalik hill, high angle slope, deforestation etc. the whole hill slope in the northern part of Butwal is susceptible to soil erosion and landslides during rainy season. Well developed 3 - 4 sets of fractures/ joints planes in the sandstones beds helped for frequent detachment of rock blocks and rock falls. Gully erosion, tension cracks in this area help to trigger landslides during monsoon rain. As a result havoc was created due to huge landslide and flood in 1978 that swept away a reinforced concrete bridge over Tinau River in the East - West highway and many houses located by the river sides. Similarly the huge landslide in 1998 in Jyotinagar (Ph.6) and 1999 in Laxminagar had totally destroyed 37 houses and damaged many houses, schools, roads, and public places. Over extraction of river gravel in Tinau River is another problem of river bank cutting and change of river course that causing floods during heavy rain. In 1970, 1981, 1986 flash flood in Tinau Khola swept away many houses and killed many people.  

Ph.6 Jyotinagar Landslide in Butwal

Dharan Municipality/ town (in eastern Nepal) is also located at the base of Siwalik foot hills and situated right on the alluvial fan deposits of Sardu Khola and Seuti Khola. Some parts of Dharan town and surrounding areas are vulnerable to soil erosion, landslide/ debris flow, flood and earthquake. Since the east – west running two active thrusts e.g. Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) passes through the northern part of the town and the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) about 3 – 4 km further north this area had frequently suffered from Earthquakes. 1988 Udayapur earthquake has damaged many houses in Dharan and over 700 people were killed in this area. Landslides are quite common to the catchment area of both Sardu (Ph.7) and Seuti Khola. Huge amount of debris material use to bring by these streams during rainy season. Flood on both banks of the river and River bank erosion are quite common and that caused destruction of cultivated lands, houses and public properties.

 

Ph.7: Sardu Khola river bed & Protection wall.  Landslide, Debris flow and Bank erosion in Sardu Khola, Dharan

Hetaunda is a part of Dune valley (Inner Terai) bounded on both sides by the Siwalik foot hills. It is a fast growing industrial town having about 85,000 populations. Soil erosion, Debris flow, Landslide, Flood are the main Natural Hazard. A number of landslides had occurred in the catchment areas of Rapti, Sanwari and Kisedi Khola to the north of Hetaunda Bazar. The Rapti River is the Trunk River and Karra Khola, Sanwari Khola and Kisede Khola are its tributaries. All these rivers/ kholas bring huge amount of sediments/ debris during monsoon rain every year and deposited them irregularly. Some settlement areas of Hetaunda which are located on these river terraces and flood plains are vulnerable to flood hazard. Almost every year these areas, highway bridges and other structures are threaten by the flood. Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) is very close (within - 3 - 4km north) of Hetaunda town. This area has suffered many times from the earthquake of over 6 Richter scale. Soil erosion and Landslides are common in the hilly areas towards north. Flood and Bank erosion are common along the Rapti River, Sanwari Khola and Karra Khola. Hetaunda is an industrial town. There is an acute environmental problem because of smokes from the chimneys (Ph.8) and industrial effluents that pollute the ground, water and air.

   

  Ph.8: Air pollution from the industries

           

All these three Butwal, Hetaunda and Dharan are the fast growing industrial towns and business centers of western, central and eastern Nepal respectively. Each of them has 85,000 to almost 100,000 populations. High rate of migration of the people from near by villages and other parts of Nepal resulting rapid population growth. Beside the natural hazards unplanned infrastructure development, improper locations of industries, haphazard settlements, encroachment of road sides/ river banks/ forest / public lands, improper land use, deforestation on the hill slopes, uncontrolled surface drain, direct connection of sewerage drains to the river, haphazard disposal of all kinds of wastes and haphazard mining of construction materials, over exploitation of river gravel and sand from Tinau Khola in Butwal, Rapti/ Sawari Khola in Hetaunda and Seuti/ Sardu Khola in Dharan are the root causes of environmental degradation. Such situations can be visualized in almost all major cities/ towns like Kathmandu, Pokhara, Butwal, Dharan, Hetaunda, Janakpur, Biratnagar, Birgunj, Bhairahawa, Nepalgunj, Dhangarhi etc. Urban inhabitants are also facing acute problem of water/ air /ground pollution causing health hazards and epidemics.

Biratnagar Municipality Area

Biratnagar is the biggest Industrial town in Nepal. It is located in eastern Terai and situated about 44km south of Dharan and 24km from Itahari (East - West highway).  Earthquake, badland weathering/ soil erosion, river bank cutting/ collapse, flood, fire, epidemic are the major hazards in Biratnagar. Since the ground water level is high (within 8m) in many parts of Biratnagar Sub-metropolitan City there are high chances of liquefaction during earthquake. Many industries are polluting the natural environment e.g. leather factory is polluting the air and ground water (Ph.9).

Ph.9: Haphazard disposal of decayed organic materials and chemicals from a Leather factory.

DMG Activities in Disaster Management

DMG is a government organization, which is fully responsible for geological survey and research, geological mapping, mineral exploration, promotion of mineral based industries and administration of existing Mining Rules and Regulations. Keeping in view about different types of hazards and environmental problems in different parts of Nepal (mainly in urban areas) DMG is regularly publishing updated Geological maps (1:50,000 scale), Mineral Resources map, Earthquake epicenter map, earthquake hazard zonation map (1:1,000,000 scale) of Nepal (DMG/ NSC Brochure 2006), Landslide hazard maps (1:50,000scale) of different parts of Nepal and engineering and environmental geological maps (1:25,000 and 1: 50,000scale) of some of the fast growing cities (urban areas/ major Towns). In the hazard map all types of hazards and hazard prone areas are identified and made simplified to the readers. All these maps are very much useful for planners, engineers and decision makers for infrastructure development planning, disaster management and environment protection. Earthquake awareness program by organizing workshop to the school/ college Science Teachers and Engineers working in different development projects in urban areas has already been initiated by DMG. All these activities will be continued and extended to village level in near future. 

DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN NEPAL

Disaster management is the effective management of available resources and their proper utilization for the pre-disaster preparedness and post-disaster rescue, relief operation for the benefit of the disaster victims. Nepal has accumulated considerable experiences in disaster management mainly after the earthquake of 1988 in eastern Nepal and landslide and flood of 1993 in Central Nepal. Both of them were related to the post disaster rescue and relief operations. For pre-disaster preparedness activities like preparation of hazard maps, training, awareness, develop warning system, studies and research on various types of natural hazards and anthropogenic hazards at government and other non government agencies are putting considerable efforts on disaster management in Nepal. Now the focus is a bit diverted from post disaster to pre-disaster preparedness. Recently out of 75 districts 20 districts are selected as highly disaster prone districts on the basis of total disaster factors (i.e. high casualties and affected families in 2005/DWIDP-2005).

Most of the natural disasters cannot be stopped and they are not yet amendable to modification or prevention. However, their impacts can be reduced significantly with the help of proper methods of disaster management focusing on pre-disaster preparedness activities. This was the central message of IDNDR declared by the UN for 1990 – 1999 AD.

Disaster Management Strategy includes the whole cycle of disaster management, starting from preparedness, mitigation, rescue, relief and reconstruction to rehabilitation. Public awareness raising by training, workshops, rehearsal and drill etc. and arrangements of early warning system are the part of preparedness. Government has understood the importance of contingency planning for disaster management. Exercises are going on for contingency planning for different scenario in emergency situation.

The government is aware of various types of disaster in the country. To meet the challenges National Action Plan for disaster management was prepared in 1996 which has been updated in 2005. A "Comprehensive Data Base (Basic information) on Natural Disaster Management Capabilities in Nepal" is prepared (Kaphle and Nakarmi 1997). But in developing countries like Nepal till to day main focuses are given in post disaster rescue/ relief operation and rehabilitation. The concept of predisaster preparedness has to be delivered to the common people at village level and get priority in national action plan so that vulnerable population, properties and infrastructures can be saved from the possible hazards. Such pre-disaster measures are taken to prevent or mitigate the disaster.

Organization Structure

Natural Calamity Relief Act-1982 (amended in 1989 and 1992) has constituted an organizational structure through which rescue, relief, rehabilitation and resettlement programs are being carried out. In Nepal, Ministry of Home Affair (MOHA) is the national focal point for managing all types of disaster Management. Minister of Home is the Chairman of Central Disaster Relief Committee (CDRC) which is the Apex body that is responsible for formulating policies and plans with regards to overall aspects of Disaster management in coordination with other key disaster actors. Minister of Health and Minister of Housing and Physical Planning are the Chief and responsible persons with regard to Relief and Treatment Sub-committee and Supply Shelter, Rehabilitation Sub-committee respectively. Regional Disaster Relief Committee (RDRC), District Disaster Relief Committee (DDRC) and Village Disaster Relief Committee (VDRC) are the different organizations at different level. CDRC and DDRC are functional where as RDRC and local level VDRC are active only after the disaster mainly for rescue and relief operation time.

LESSON LEARNED

* Human being cannot stop natural hazards but their effects can be reduced considerably if the people are well aware of and well prepared to face them in time.

* Government should prepare effective comprehensive management plan for disaster preparedness.

* Government must give more emphasis on preparedness to save the vulnerable people and structures.

* The people should be aware of all types of hazards integrated activities for all possible hazards

* National Action Plan must be implemented by different concerning government agencies with close cooperation of UN agencies, donors and NGOs make easy to manage the disaster.

* Preparedness definitely helps to reduce the damage and loss of lives

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Based on the National Calamity Act 1982 the organizations are arranged in such a way that the focus is given mainly for post disaster on rescue, relief operation and rehabilitation. Now in changed situation equal importance should be given for pre-disaster preparedness. It is necessary to replace the existing Natural calamity Relief Act 1982 by a new Act for Natural Disaster Reduction Management Act since the existing Act does not cover the whole cycle of Disaster management.

In many cases earthquake, landside, flood are not treated as important parameters during planning and designing the infrastructures, as a result they face the problem and they need huge amount of money in maintenance. Therefore detail geological studies and application of appropriate technology is vital for the reduction of damage.

There is a lack of long term plan, now Nepal urgently requires an integrated disaster management plan for coping with all types of natural disasters. A concrete, effective, practicable policy is needed for proper disaster management.

Disaster management and all development planning and environmental management are operated in isolation and there is lack of integrated planning between these sectors. Therefore, disaster management must equally focus on pre-disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness to reduce the effect of disaster in addition to post-disaster response, rescue and rehabilitation works. It should be integrated into national development plan for sustainable development and poverty reduction.

All the development actors (Government, NGOs and INGOs bilateral/ multilateral agencies) have been dealing disaster in isolation. There is a need of coordination among the partners/ related organizations. Therefore establishment of a separate high level national disaster risk management council as an apex body is highly recommended.

Local people/ communities are the first victims of natural disaster and the first respondents. Without community participation disaster cannot be well managed. Therefore disaster management plan should focus on them and vulnerable groups should be well addressed in disaster management plan..

We must realize that the disaster management is necessary to save the lives, properties, infrastructures in the country and there is a need to improve the emergency response capabilities especially in Kathmandu valley and other major cities. National Action plan and National Building code must be forcefully implemented.

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